| How to Tell if the Rock You Found Might Be a Meteorite Posted: 22 Sep 2018 01:00 AM PDT If you've come across a rock that looks positively out-of-this-world, there's a possibility it may be a meteorite. Although meteorites are relatively rare on Earth, they're not impossible to find in the wild. However, you'll want to make sure your find is indeed a stony or iron rock of cosmic origin and not a piece of ordinary terrestrial material. By checking for common visual and physical markers of a meteorite, you can determine whether the rock you've found is actually extraterrestrial in origin. EditLooking for Visual Identifiers - Discern if the rock is black or rusty brown. If the rock you've found is a freshly fallen meteorite, it will be black and shiny as a result of having burned through the atmosphere. After a long time spent on Earth, however, the iron metal in the meteorite will turn to rust, leaving the meteorite a rusty brown.[1]
- This rusting starts out as small red and orange spots on the surface of the meteorite that slowly expand to cover more and more of the rock. You may still be able to see the black crust even if part of it has begun to rust.[2]
- The meteorite may be black in color but with slight variations (e.g., steely bluish black). However, if the rock you've found isn't at all close to black or brown in color, then it is not a meteorite.
- Confirm that the rock has an irregular shape. Contrary to what you might expect, most meteorites are not round. Instead, they are typically quite irregular, with sides of varying size and shape. Although some meteorites may develop a conical shape, most will not appear aerodynamic once they land.[3]
- Although irregular in shape, most meteorites will have edges that are rounded rather than sharp.[4]
- If the rock you've found is relatively normal in shape, or is round like a ball, it may still be a meteorite. However, the vast majority of meteorites are irregular in shape.
- Determine whether the rock has a fusion crust. As rocks pass through the Earth's atmosphere, their surfaces begin to melt and air pressure forces the molten material back, leaving a featureless, melt-like surface called a fusion crust. If your rock's surface looks like it has melted and shifted, it may be a meteorite.[5]
- A fusion crust will most likely be smooth and featureless, though it may also include ripple marks and "droplets" where molten stone had moved and resolidified.
- If your rock does not have a fusion crust, it is most likely not a meteorite.
- The fusion crust may look like a black eggshell coating the rock.[6]
- Rocks in the desert will sometimes develop a shiny black exterior that looks similar to fusion crust. If you found your rock in a desert environment, consider whether its black surface might be desert varnish.
- Check for flow lines where the surface may have melted. Flow lines are small streaks on the fusion crust from when the crust was molten and was forced backwards. If your rock has a crust-like surface with small streak lines across it, there's a good chance it's a meteorite.[7]
- Flow lines may be small or not immediately apparent to the naked eye, as the lines can be broken or not completely straight. Use a magnifying glass and a discerning eye when looking for flow lines on the surface of a rock.[8]
- Identify any pits and depressions on the rock's surface. Although the surface of a meteorite is generally featureless, it may also include shallow pits and deep cavities that resemble thumbprints. Look for these on your rock to determine both if it's a meteorite and what type of meteorite it is.[9]
- Iron meteorites are particularly susceptible to irregular melting and will have deeper, more defined cavities, whereas stony meteorites may have craters that are smooth like the rock's surface.[10]
- These indentations are technically known as "regmaglypts," though most people who work with meteorites will suffice to call them "thumbprints."
- Make sure the rock isn't porous or full of holes. Although craters and cavities on the surface may indicate that your rock is a meteorite, no meteorite has holes in its interior. Meteorites are dense pieces of solid rock; if the rock you've found is porous or bubbly in appearance, it's unfortunately not a meteorite.[11]
- If the rock you've found has holes in the surface, or appears "bubbly" as if it was once molten, it is definitely not a meteorite.[12]
- Slag from industrial processes is often confused for meteorites, although slag has a porous surface. Other commonly mistaken types of rock include lava rocks and black limestone rocks.
- If you're having trouble discerning between holes and regmaglypts, it may be useful to view side-by-side comparisons of these features online to learn how to spot the difference.[13]
EditTesting the Rock's Physical Properties - Calculate the rock's density if it feels heavier than normal. Meteorites are solid pieces of rock that are usually densely packed with metal. If the rock you've found looks like a meteorite, compare it to other rocks to ensure it's relatively heavy, then calculate its density to determine if it's a meteorite.[14]
- You can calculate the density of the potential meteorite by dividing its weight by its volume. If a rock has a calculated density higher than 3 units, it is much more likely to be a meteorite.[15]
- Use a magnet to see whether the rock is magnetic. Nearly all meteorites are at least somewhat magnetic, even if only weakly. This is due to the high concentration in most meteorites of iron and nickel, which are magnetic. If a magnet is not attracted to your rock, it's almost certainly not a meteorite.[16]
- Because many terrestrial rocks are also magnetic, the magnet test will not definitively prove your rock is a meteorite. However, failing to pass the magnet test is a very strong indication that your rock is probably not a meteorite.
- An iron meteorite will be much more magnetic than a stone meteorite and many will be strong enough to interfere with a compass held close to it.[17]
- Scratch the rock against unglazed ceramic to see if it leaves a streak. A streak test is a good way to test your rock to rule out terrestrial materials. Scrape your rock against the unglazed side of a ceramic tile; if it leaves any streak other than a weak grayish one, it is not a meteorite.[18]
- For an unglazed ceramic tile, you can use the unfinished bottom of a bathroom or kitchen tile, the unglazed bottom of a ceramic coffee mug, or the inside of a toilet tank cover.[19]
- Hematite and magnetite rocks are commonly mistaken for meteorites. Hematite rocks leave a red streak, while magnetite rocks leave a dark gray streak, indicating that they are not meteorites.[20]
- Keep in mind that many terrestrial rocks also do not leave streaks; thus, while the streak test can rule out hematite and magnetite, it will not definitively prove your rock is a meteorite on its own.
- File the surface of the rock and look for shiny metal flakes. Most meteorites contain metal that is visibly shiny under the surface of the fusion crust. Use a diamond file to file a corner of the rock and check the interior for telltale metals on the inside.[21]
- You'll need a diamond file to ground down the surface of a meteorite. The filing process will also take some time and a good bit of effort. If you're unable to do this on your own, you can take it into a laboratory for specialist testing.[22]
- If the interior of the rock is plain, it is most likely not a meteorite.
- Inspect the inside of the rock for small balls of stony material. Most meteorites that fall to Earth are of the type to have small round masses on the inside known as chondrules. These may look like smaller rocks and will vary in size, shape, and color.[23]
- Although chondrules are generally located in the interiors of meteorites, weather erosion may cause them to be visible on the surface of meteorites that have been exposed to the elements for a sufficient amount of time.
- In most cases, you will need to break open the meteorite to check for chondrules.[24]
- Because meteorites tend to have higher concentrations of nickel than terrestrial rocks, you can use a nickel test to determine whether your rock is a meteorite or not. This test can be done at any meteorite testing laboratory and will be more definitive than most of the tests above.
- Meteorites do have bubbles and they are called vesicles. All lunar meteorites are vesicular. Stony and iron meteorites do not have bubbles on the inside. Some stony meteorites have air bubbles on the outside.
- There are plenty of good books and websites out there. Educate yourself.
- Your chances of finding a real meteorite are very small. If you want to find one, deserts are the best places to look.
- Don't try to sell your rock on eBay as a meteorite unless it has been verified by an expert. eBay will not allow you to list something as "may be a meteorite".
EditSources and Citations EditQuick Summary
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| How to Store Cupcakes Posted: 21 Sep 2018 05:00 PM PDT Cupcakes are a lovely addition to any celebration. Obviously fresh-baked cupcakes will taste the best, but making them does require a bit of prep work and it can be hard to fit this into your schedule. Storing them short-term on your counter or longer-term in your freezer can buy you some time before serving them. Both frosted and unfrosted cupcakes can easily be kept in an airtight container at room temperature or in a freezer with a small amount of preparation. EditKeeping Cupcakes on the Counter - Give the cupcakes time to cool completely. If you just removed your cupcakes from the oven, let them cool, uncovered, for at least one hour.[1] If you put them in a container when they're hot, condensation will build up and make them soggy.
- Cooling the cupcakes on a wire cooling rack causes them to cool faster and stops the bottoms of the cupcakes from turning soggy or steamy. This is because the air is able to circulate all around them, which doesn't happen if the cupcakes are sitting on a plate or cutting board.[2]
- Frost your cupcakes if you won't have time later. It's better to frost your cupcakes as close to the time that they'll be eaten as possible, but sometimes schedules won't allow for this! Just be mindful that any frostings with dairy products should be refrigerated, not left out.[3]
- If you opt to leave your cupcakes unfrosted, be sure to frost them within 2 days of baking them.[4]
- Choose a large airtight plastic container. A good-sized container will hold about a dozen cupcakes. Choose one that's tall enough to fit frosted cupcakes without damaging their icing tops — around is usually safe.[5]
- Make sure you purchase a storage container that's BPA-free.[6]
- Lay a sheet of wax paper on the bottom of the container. Cut it if you need to make it the right size to fit in your container. Wax paper is great because it has a thin layer of wax over it that stops food from sticking to it.[7]
- If you don't have wax paper, parchment paper is a good substitute.
- Arrange your cupcakes in the container. Give each cupcake enough space in the container so any iced cupcakes are not touching one another.[8] If you need more space, buy more plastic containers.
- Place another sheet of wax paper gently over the tops of your cupcakes. Lay it loosely over the top of your cupcakes to minimize damage to any frosting.[9] This step isn't vital — your cupcakes will be fine without it — but it can be a nice added layer of protection.[10]
- Keep your cupcakes at room temperature for 3-4 days. If you have to store cupcakes any longer than that, consider freezing them. They don't necessarily spoil after 3-4 days, but they start to taste less fresh and more dense.[11]
- Keep a watchful eye over buttercream, cream cheese, or ganache frostings. These might start to go bad even before 3-4 days have passed.[12]
EditFreezing Cupcakes - Ensure that the cupcakes have completely cooled. Freezing cupcakes can keep them surprisingly moist, even after longer periods of storage. Before preparing them for the freezer, however, cool them on a wire rack for at least an hour. They should be cool to the touch before you move on.[13]
- Freeze the cupcakes for 1 hour if you've already frosted them. Leave your cupcakes uncovered and on a plate. This is a pre-freeze that will harden the frosting. They're ready to be taken out of the freezer when the frosting does not warp when you gently touch the surface.[14]
- If you don't have enough space in your freezer for all of your cupcakes to sit on a plate to pre-freeze, you may need to do multiple rounds of pre-freezing.
- Wrap each cupcake individually in plastic wrap. Make sure that the plastic wrap is tight around the cupcake. This wards off any freezer-taste that could seep into the cupcake.[15]
- Be gentle when wrapping frosted cupcakes, but don't worry too much. The pre-freeze should have hardened the icing enough for the plastic wrap to be snug around its surface without damaging it.
- Place wrapped cupcakes in an airtight bag or container. A gallon-sized airtight plastic bag works just fine for unfrosted cupcakes. For frosted cupcakes, it's better to use an airtight glass or plastic container to minimize damage to the frosting.[16]
- Write the date on the bag or container to remind your future self of when you baked these.[17]
- Defrost and eat frozen cupcakes within 3 months. If you're ready to defrost your cupcakes, take them out of the freezer and unwrap them from the plastic wrap. Let them come up to room temperature.[18] This can take anywhere from 30 minutes to 3 hours.[19]
- Uncovering them stops them from accumulating moisture and getting sticky in their packaging.[20]
- If the frosting starts to fall off of the cupcakes as they warm up, you can use a butter knife to push the frosting back onto the top of the cupcake. Check on them occasionally as they defrost in case this happens.[21]
- There are tall cupcake caddies available for purchase, but be mindful that they can be difficult to store and it's hard to stack things on top of them.[22]
- If you've been storing cupcakes on the counter and need to transport them in hot weather, throw them in the fridge for 20 minutes before you leave. This will firm up the frosting and prevent melting.[23]
- Except in cases of extreme heat, avoid keeping your cupcakes in the fridge. It will dry all the moisture out of them.[24]
- Don't tightly cover cupcakes with plastic wrap, as this can lead to sticky cupcake tops that make the frosting process harder.[25]
- Storing cupcakes that have filling in them can lead to sogginess, and perishable fillings can go bad quickly! It's best to store your cupcakes unfilled, and then insert filling right before you're ready to eat.[26]
- Discard any cupcakes that have an odd smell or appearance, or any that have mold on them.[27]
EditSources and Citations EditQuick Summary
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| How to Date Your Best Friend Posted: 21 Sep 2018 09:00 AM PDT A strong friendship is an excellent base for a good romantic relationship. Be careful and considerate about how you approach dating your best friend since they play an important role in your life. Ease into the transition from being friends to lovers by communicating openly and taking things slow. As your relationship progresses, boost the romance to take things to the next level! EditCommunicating Clearly - State your interest simply if you are still just friends. If your friend doesn't know that you have a romantic interest in them, tell them in a straightforward but non-threatening way. Explain that you are attracted to them and want to pursue a romantic relationship with them. Make it clear that you will understand if they don't feel the same way but that you wanted to be honest about your feelings either way.[1]
- For instance, say, "I have strong feelings for you and I want to be more than just a friend, but I will totally understand if you aren't interested in taking things to the next level."
- An unrequited crush can put tension on a friendship over time, so it is good to be honest regardless of the outcome.
- Share your concerns with your best friend to maintain honesty. Moving from friendship to romance is a risk that may be challenging to take. Share any worries you have about losing your close relationship to see if they feel the same way. Ask if there are any other concerns about the situation that they have to get a clear understanding of what obstacles may be facing you both.[2]
- For example, say something like, "You're my best friend and I'm not sure if my romantic feelings for you are worth losing you entirely."
- Establish the boundaries of your new relationship to avoid misunderstandings. Communicate your romantic wants and needs clearly to your partner from the start. Avoid the assumption that they will intuitively know how what will be okay with you and make you happy. Be sure to outline any behaviour that you consider unacceptable from a romantic partner so they know how you want to be treated.[3]
- For instance, say something like, "I believe in monogamy and I can't tolerate cheating in a romantic relationship."
- Avoid making assumptions about what your partner wants. After transitioning from friendship to a relationship, you may think that you already know what your partner wants romantically. Always check with your partner to see what goals and desires they have as these may change over time, and in different situations. If you catch yourself guessing what they might like, stop and ask them about it to double check. They will appreciate your effort and concern about their feelings.[4]
- For instance, if your partner noted in the past that they didn't want a co-dependent relationship, do not assume that they want you to keep your distance.
EditMoving Slowly - Make sure that your motivations are pure and not temporary. Think about your current state of mind and life circumstances and ask yourself if your romantic feelings might be caused by these factors. Sometimes life events can cause people to seek comfort, stability, excitement, or validation from other people in our lives who they don't genuinely want to be with. Avoid pursuing a relationship with your best friend if you might be using them to feel better.[5]
- For instance, you may seek comfort and distraction in a romance with your best friend after a death in the family.
- Avoid getting physically intimate until you are sure of your chemistry. Take things slowly in your new relationship so that you can both figure out your feelings without distractions. Romantic touching and sexual contact can blur the lines of a relationship and confuse boundaries. Try to let your physical relationship evolve naturally out of genuine chemistry and affection.[6]
- Acting on physical urges too soon may make the situation awkward or increase the intensity of your relationship very quickly.
- Be consistent about your romantic advances to avoid confusion. Moving slowly is a good way of avoiding confusing hot-and-cold behaviour. Making a grand romantic move one week, then acting like a casual buddy the next will leave your friend unsure of your feelings. Take things slow and gradually build up to bigger gestures or commitments so you won't be overwhelmed by the situation.[7]
- For instance, don't show up to your friend's workplace with flowers one day and introduce them to colleagues as your "buddy" a few days later.
- Give each other space sometimes to avoid getting tired of each other. Taking things to the next level with your best friend can reinforce an already strong bond, making it tempting to spend all of your time with them. Take some time apart to pursue your own interests and to make sure that you get the chance to miss each other. This will make you appreciate each other even more while reducing the risk of becoming annoying to each other.[8]
- For example, take time to visit with other friends or spend some quiet time alone at home.
EditMaking Things More Romantic - Start calling them nicknames that are flirty or affectionate. Casual nicknames that you call a friend may give them the impression that you are not interested in them. Instead, try to call them pet names that convey that you think they are special or attractive. This will help transition your relationship from friendship to love.[9]
- For instance, call them something like "sweetheart," "cutie," or "gorgeous."
- Avoid casual names like "buddy," "pal," or "dude."
- Put effort into impressing them despite your comfort with them. Friendship means a certain level of familiarity and comfort that may not scream "romance." Aim to impress them the same way you would try to win over a blind date or a cute stranger. Add intrigue to the relationship to keep and increase their interest.[10]
- For instance, dress up for outings the same way you would for a romantic date with someone you are just getting to know.
- Pursue more romantic activities while you are together. A good way to shift your relationship from friendship to romance is to change your routine together. Create excitement by spending time in situations or places you have never been to. Avoid having "dates" that involve activities you did together as friends, such as playing video games or sports.[11]
- For example, go out for a romantic candlelit dinner or share a bottle of wine instead of ordering a pizza.
- Plan a romantic trip together to celebrate your love. While you may have done many activities together as friends, a shared getaway is a distinctly romantic thing to do. Plan a small vacation for you and your partner to spend some one-on-one time together. Whether it is a short road trip or a more elaborate getaway, the experience will bond you on a new level.[12]
- To avoid potential conflicts, start by going away for a few days at a time with your partner then build up to longer trips.
- It might be easier to transition from friends to lovers if you keep this change from mutual friends and family until you are settled into the new relationship.
- Avoid over-romanticizing the situation because of books or movies that feature friends falling in love.
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